Autographs - News and Notes. CLICK HERE if you want to see my autograph price lists in sports, movies, music, presidents. Here is a link to my store. Many items for sale. Just click this button. I will let you know if it's Likely Genuine or Not Likely Genuine. After ordering please provide a link to the item or email an image to richsprt@aol. The $1. 7. 9. 9 can be applied to the fee for a full authentication if you so desire. CLICK the e- mail icon if you have some news to report to me. I am always interested in news about the autograph business, especially anything new emanating from Florida. Einstein On The Beach Philip Glass Rarity EquestriaUPDATED 31 March 2012 On the Psychology of Military Incompetence By Norman F. Dixon, M.B.E. Apparently, computer reprinted photos, with copy autographs, were sent to some very well known authenticators, who then authenticated these items as legitimate. I say apparently because I have read this on an anonymous website, where the author is too cowardly to come out and sign his name to his stories, so I cannot give the information total credibility. I have since read information about the infamous ownership of this website but have not been able to verify that information. If I can verify it, I will post it here. However, since this sting was attempted on me also, it might be a credible story. I believe that the individual or individuals behind the sting tried to perpetrate this sting on me also. I received a group of four photos with alleged autographs on them. One of them turned out to be a copy of an autographed photo, with a copy autograph. I identified it as such to the person who sent me the photos. A couple of weeks later that same person sent me one more photo, which was also a copy of an autographed photo. I also correctly identified the alleged autograph as not being an autograph but a copy of an autograph. If these incidents were actually a sting, and trying to make me look incompetent, well guys it did not work. XXX in New Jersey and whoever else may have been involved in this, if indeed it was a sting, thanks very much for sending me authentication fees for five items. I am gonna take the Mrs. The Mrs and I had a nice dinner on you guys. Please try again. Coaches Corner, a Pennsylvania auction company, and the BBBBased on BBB files, this business has a BBB Rating of F. Reasons for this rating include: Number of complaints filed against business. Failure to respond to complaints filed against business. As any schoolboy or girl knows F is the worst grade you can get. That is a worse grade then American Memorabilia's D grade. Wonder what would compel the BBB to give Coaches Corner an F? Perhaps a consignor got angry when his Albert Einstein autograph only sold for $2. Perhaps a lot of (well a few) consignors were unhappy with such low prices realized. Perhaps the consignors are complaining to the BBB. Ah well, that's life in the autograph world. District Judge George Daniels rejected claims in Manhattan federal court. Tuesday by Donald Frangipani, who claimed, in his lawsuit, he had more than 4. The arrests the FBI made led to over 3. Mr. Frangipani was not indicted by the Federal government. This case lasted almost two years. Philip Glass artist page: interviews, features and/or performances archived at NPR Music. I would never offer this type of autograph to my customers. Parts of letters missing all over the Maris autograph and you can have it for only $2. This is something the card companies have done to create chase cards. Obliterating autographs seems to be a fun thing for them to do. This really should not happen. Even Beckett has criticized the card manufacturers for this practice with this statement: . I don't know of any serious autograph collectors who buy these obliterated cards. A PENNSYLVANIA AUTOGRAPH FORGER GETS 3. MONTHS IN PRISON! The Feds had arrested a Pennsylvania forger (getting into the real part of the country now where this crap is going on) who sold bogus signed books on ebay. Click this link to read the full story. They threw the book at him, forgery for profit is no longer looked at as a small crime. Click the link to read about Heritage Auctions and alleged shill bidding. Apparently this lawsuit has been dismissed 3 times and ordered to arbitration. The quality of most of these forgeries is poor. The sellers are selling them as . When buying single signed baseballs (or any autographs) KNOW YOUR SELLER, know that he is a hobby veteran, know that he will honor a lifetime guarantee and that he will stand behind his autographs. History destroyed by Topps. The trend of card companies placing signatures on trading cards has hit a new low. Even the Beckett Company has made negative comments about what card companies have done on these cards. In order to make these cards more . The signature of Andrew Jackson, a great American President, has been obliterated for the purpose of creating a trading card that is allegedly more . Let's look at the facts here. Andrew Jackson always signed his name on one straight line. This signature was cut from a document and then cut in half in order to place it on this card. In addition, note how parts of some of the letters have been destroyed. All for the sake of creating . In my opinion, this is a pitiful and pathetic practice, you should be ashamed of yourself Topps. The TV shows 2. 0/2. Inside Edition had a similar episode about Rock n Roll autographs and photo shopped pictures showing fake guitar signings by rock stars. The online story, which was not discussed on the air, includes denials by people connected to the rock stars about the authenticity of the autographs. They still, apparently, are late paying their consignors or in some instances have not paid at all. Various websites and blogs are reporting this. I don't have first hand knowledge of this, but I am seeing reports on websites and blogs. Apparently threats to report them to the BBB or take them to court don't even work anymore. The rating of American Memorabilia with the Better Business Bureau is now an F as of 1. That is the worst possible grade from the BBB. As of 1/2. 0/1. 0 the grade has been raised to a D+. That is still a pretty awful grade to have from the BBB. I have received several e mails from collectors who have read my info and still are waiting for payment from American Memorabilia for past auctions. Check out what you see very carefully in ebay auctions. Make sure you get the number of the COA and check the legitimacy of it. Make sure the COA has a name, address and phone number of the person/company that is authenticating the item. An auction house that was quick to criticize others is now under intense scrutiny and has created a very difficult situation for many who are still owed serious amounts of money. What goes around comes around. It wasn't a secret they would be back in 2. They have also requested bidding records from some auction houses. Just because dealers are interviewed doesn't mean they're targets of the investigation, however. Agents have also chatted with owners of popular online forums and numerous collectors as they continue to seek information. Forums on the internet have been flooded with complaints from consignors who have not been paid for their consignments. Rumors abound about their business practices. Have they shipped auction lots to winning bidders without being paid? Are they financially capable of paying off consignors? I guess what goes around comes around. BE CAREFUL who you buy from. American Memorabilia update. The Las Vegas auction company American Memorabilia now has a grade of F from the Better Business Bureau of Southern Nevada. Consignors are posting messages on forums and message boards stating their complaints against this company. The more fundamental problem, according to the study, is that there is LITTLE EVIDENCE OF THE ACCURACY AND RELIABILITY of most forensic methods . The most thoroughly validated technique is nuclear DNA analysis, which has a minuscule likelihood of error when done right. But other well- known methods that can supposedly identify a guilty person or link a weapon or other evidence to a particular crime have NO RIGOROUS SCIENTIFIC PROOF THAT THEY WORK CONSISTENTLY.
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The first sequel to the superb vertically scrolling shoot-em-up "Aero Fighters", players once again take control of a Jet fighter aircraft and take to the skies to. Two Hours Before Sunset. Djursland, Denmark. By Robbert Vervuurt. The Sequelitis trope as used in popular culture. As the number of films in a series grows, the probability that the latest entry will be terrible increases. Sonic the Hedgehog 2 Game Download. After his last adventure, everyone's favorite hog sat back, unlaced histennies, and prepared fora little R 'n' R. Now he's got good news and bad news. The bad news is that Sonic's arch- nemesis, Doctor Robotnik, is back to avenge his defeat in the original Sonic The Hedgehog. The good news? This means another super speedy handheld adventure for Sonic fans everywhere. Rock the Doc. This time around, Doc R has cooked up a fiendish Death Egg. This cracked weapon will destroy the entire world if Sonic doesn't manage to scramble it in time. Prepare to conquer six new hard- boiled levels of Sonic- style action. The vertically- and horizontally- scrolling side- view game play features that old familiar Sonic fun, as well as some ultra- cool new means of locomotion for his Hedge- hogness. Sonic Before The Sequel Sprites And FairiesSonic the Hedgehog é uma franquia de videogames criado pela Sega e protagonizada por seu mascote Sonic the Hedgehog. A série conta as aventuras de Sonic, um ouriço. Yup, the dude with a 'tude takes to the skies, grabs some wheels, and gets upside down, just to make some smokin' tracks with his trademark tennies. Sonic's also got a cool new foxy buddy, Tails, who makes cameo appearances throughout the game. Sonic Soon- to- Be. Sonic The Hedgehog 2 is speeding to a Game Gear near you this November. We'll have a complete review on the game in an upcoming issue of Game. Pro. In the meantime, kick back, unlace your tennies, and check it out. Now that Sega's official sultan of speed, Sonic The Hedgehog, has officially zipped onto retail shelves across the country, it's time to see just what makes the speed meister tick in this sizzling sequel. Better the Second Time Around. Everything gets better with practice, and Sega's proving that with a more than suitable sequel to 1. Game of the Year. Sonic Before The Sequel Sprites IncSonic The Hedgehog 2 is everything you loved about Sonic The Hedgehog, plus more - - more Zones, more enemies, more companions, more play modes, and more players. Sonic was set for early retirement, ready to rest on the laurels of his '9. Unfortunately, Dr. Robotnik (Sonic's arch- enemy) decided to play it fast and loose with the forest creatures one more time. This time, the bad doctor's hatched a new sinister weapon, the Death Egg. Sonic's got to scramble the Doc's cracked plot, or the forest and its creatures are cooked. Tough luck for Sonic, but great news for Sonic lovers everywhere. Fans of the personable homehog will be delighted to discover that Sonic isn't gonna battle the Doc solo. Enter Tails. This perky two- tailed creature of the fox persuasion is about the cutest companion that any Sonic fan could ask for. In the one- player mode, Tails tags along and does his best to help Sonic by grabbing rings and whomping bad guys. In the innovative two- player mode, Tails and Sonic work cooperatively or go head- to- head competitively in a unique split- screen format. Although the split- screen's tough to follow due to its small size and the super speed of the characters, it's an interesting change of pace. Pro. Tip: Make Tails help you in one- player mode. Jump towards an enemy, and then leap back. Tails will usually leap forward and do the dirty work. Some Things Change, Others Remain the Same. Experienced players will recognize some of the locales from the first game, like the Emerald Hill Zone. However, Sonic 2's eight Zones (with two stages apiece) are packed with imaginative and original, new scenery. If you thought you saw it all in Sonic The Hedgehog, . The dude with a 'tude still skims, jumps, grabs rings and power- ups, and races across the screen. Only this time around, if you can believe it, he's even faster! When you hit the Chemical Zone, Sonic streaks across the screen at speeds never- before- seen in a video game. The mighty hedgehog also has a new secret weapon - - the Spin- Dash. Just push Down and hit Button C to make Sonic rev up for super dashes that'll take him where no hedgehog has gone before. In Sonic The Hedgehog it was always a good idea to carry at least one ring. This advice is twice as good in Sonic The Hedgehog 2! Sonic 2's graphics are actually better than the original's. The rich variety of scenery, slightly larger sprites, and extra added attitude help the spunky hedgehog paint video game magic. Sonic's music isn't quite as impressive through. The tunes have a slightly tinny quality at times, but there's a new and improved theme song for each of the Zones. Simple Sonic. If there's a downside to Sonic The Hedgehog 2, it's that the game's just not tough enough. Players of all levels will be able to work their way through most of the game in relatively short order. Although Dr. Robotnik's mechanical animals are abundant in some levels, other levels, like the Casino Zone, are sparsely populated. Per usual, Dr. Robotnik's bad boss incarnations at the end of each level are imaginative but relatively easy to beat. It's easy to whiz through a Zone. The challenge and the fun lies in uncovering all of the Zone's hidden secrets. Every time the cracked Doctor appears, Sonic has to figure out how to bonk him eight times to send him packing. In the Hill Top Zone, jump, curl into a super Sonic bullet, and bonk him 'til he's done for. Gamers who sail straight through all of the zones have another surprise in store for them. You'll only see the game's true ending if you snag all the Chaos Emeralds from Bonus Rounds that are scattered along the way. Sonic and Tails enter Bonus Rounds by tagging special signposts scattered throughout each Zone. Then they take off in a tunnel race, where they try to snatch a specific number of rings. You view the 3- D action from behind the speedy duo, as you try to grab rings and dodge what look like bowling balls. Theoretically, the Genesis isn't capable of scaling, but Sonic's Bonus Rounds are gonna make you wonder! When you enter a Bonus Round, you lose all your rings. If you're close to 1. Bonus Round - - unless you're hunting for Chaos Emeralds! Don't forget to jump. You can grab high- flying rings and dodge the bowling ball- like obstacles. To beat Dr. Robotnik in the Chemical Zone, position Sonic on the yellow platform in the middle of the screen. When Robotnik appears on either side of the screen, bounce and bash him two times. Then duck and cover. If Sonic's ducking, Robotnik's evil chemicals won't hurt him. Aquatic Ruin Zone: Destroy Robotnik in the Aquatic Zone by jumping on the arrows that lodge in the pillars. From there, it's an easy jump to hit Robotnik. Don't forget to dodge the next flying arrow. More of a Good Thing. It's tough to follow a classic, but Sonic The Hedgehog 2 earns top honors. There's enough stuff that's new and different in Sonic 2 to make it a must- have game for fans of the original. Probably the best thing about Sonic 2 is that it's just plain fun. Beginning and hardcore gamers alike will enjoy this fast- paced romp with His Hedgehogness and Tails. We can't wait to see what Sonic's gonna do on CD. In the meantime, Sonic 2 gives ya plenty of fabulous gaming to pass the time. The Casino Zone's a great place to rack up a few free lives. Between the tons of rings and the slot machines, where you can score big with extra rings, it's easy to rack up 1. 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SIM8. 00 5v/4v . Insert a valid SIM card and connect the Arduino with Arduino IDE. Simple Serial Communication. Below is the simplest program usable to interact with SIM8. Software. Serial. SIM8. 00 TX is connected to Arduino D8. SIM8. 00. Hence, will not repeat same). Once upload is complete start the Arduino Serial Monitor from Tools menu. Set Baud rate to 9. Both NL and CR”. Once done, you can freely send AT commands to SIM8. Few examples : AT – is to check if interface is working fine. AT+CFUN – is used to set phone functionality. AT+CFUN? With this approach it is not possible to clearly identify any ERROR conditions because program will not ready the responses sent. Proper method of doing this is by checking each response against an expected value. This is already handled in most of the Arduino libraries including “Seeeduino” library we’ll be using below. Hence, for this stage, 1 second delay is used for the sake of simplicity. Note : Replace 0. XXXXX with mobile number SMS should be sent to. After going through source codes of several libraries my selection was “Seeeduino. This is the reason we used relevant pins at first place. If you need to connect SIM8. Arduino pin, you will have to modify the library source (gprs. Library uses MIT license. Once library is installed in Arduino IDE File menu, Examples section you will find “Seeeduino! For examples there are library methods such as : send. Cmd. And. Wait. For. Resp(const char* cmd, const char *expected. Resp, unsigned timeout)send. Cmd(const char* cmd)wait. For. Resp(const char *resp, unsigned int timeout)Hence, you could simply correctly rewrite the SMS sending application as below (reinvent the wheel) . Cmd. And. Wait. For. Resp(. It will be helpful if you could further go tough Seeeduino library to understand how they have used different commands. Read more about SIM8. Win! 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ARINC 4. 29 - Wikipedia. ARINC 4. 29. It uses a self- clocking, self- synchronizing data bus protocol (Tx and Rx are on separate ports). The physical connection wires are twisted pairs carrying balanced differential signaling. Data words are 3. Messages are transmitted at either 1. The transmitter constantly transmits either 3. NULL state. A single wire pair is limited to one transmitter and no more than 2. The protocol allows for self- clocking at the receiver end, thus eliminating the need to transmit clocking data. ARINC 4. 29 is an alternative to MIL- STD- 1. Bit numbering, Transmission Order, and Bit Significance. The bits within an ARINC 4. Serial meaning, definition, what is serial: used to describe a person who repeatedly commits a similar crime or carries out a similar. Learn more. OIL: BMW has never waivered in its Airhead motorcycles' transmission oil recommendations, and this includes the last Airheads. While straight grades are listed in the. Serial Communications 101. This technical white paper describes everything you'll need to know about RS232, com ports and serial communications. NJU3712 Ver.2003-11-18 - 1 - 8-BIT SERIAL TO PARALLEL CONVERTER GENERAL DESCRIPTION The NJU3712 is an 8-bit serial to parallel converter especially applying to MPU. Blog Entry Using Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Master and Slave with Atmel AVR Microcontroller June 25, 2009 by rwb, under Microcontroller. Sometimes we need to. The Serial Peripheral Interface bus (SPI) is a synchronous serial communication interface specification used for short distance communication, primarily in embedded. The Most Flexible Type of Nonvolatile Memory Devices. Atmel is a leading supplier of Serial EEPROM devices and has shipped over 12 billion devices in the past decade. RS232 RS485 RS422 TTL USB Serial Fiber Optic Converters, Ethernet Media Converters, 5-year warranty, 30-day money back satisfaction guarantee! Same day express shipping! A go-to guide referred to by millions - by C. Strangio, developer of CAMI Research's CableEye continuity & hipot Cable & Harness test systems.Bit Number 1 to Bit Number 3. The fields and data structures of the ARINC 4. While it is common to illustrate serial protocol frames progressing in time from right to left, a reversed ordering is commonly practiced within the ARINC standard. Even though ARINC 4. Bit 1 and ends with Bit 3. In simplest terms, while the transmission order of bits (from the first transmitted bit to the last transmitted bit) for a 3. First bit > 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1. Last bit,this sequence is often diagrammed in ARINC 4. Last bit > 3. 2, 3. First bit. When the ARINC 4. Bit 3. 2 to the left, the numeric representations in the data field generally read with the Most significant bit on the left. However, in this particular bit order presentation, the Label field reads with its most significant bit on the right. Like CAN Protocol Identifier Fields. However, like UART Protocol, Binary- coded decimal numbers and binary numbers in the ARINC 4. Some equipment suppliers. This renumbering highlights the relative reversal of . Observe how the 8. ARINC 4. 29 Label field. This notional reversal also reflects historical implementation details. ARINC 4. 29 transceivers have been implemented with 3. As such, the bit order of the octet access is the bit order of the accessing device, which is usually LSB 0; and serial transmission is arranged such that the least significant bit of each octet is transmitted first. So, in common practice, the accessing device wrote or read a . Every ARINC 4. 29 channel typically uses . This bit is set to 0 or 1 to ensure that the correct number of bits are set to 1 in the word. Bits 3. 0 to 3. 1 are the Sign/Status Matrix (SSM) - these bits may have various encodings dependent on the particular data representation applied to a given word. In all cases using the SSM, these bits may be encoded to indicate: Normal Operation (NO) - Indicates the data in this word is considered to be correct data. Functional Test (FT) - Indicates that the data is being provided by a test source. Failure Warning (FW) - Indicates a failure which causes the data to be suspect or missing. No Computed Data (NCD) - Indicates that the data is missing or inaccurate for some reason other than a failure. For example, autopilot commands will show as NCD when the autopilot is not turned on. In the case of Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) representation, the SSM may also indicate the Sign (+/- ) of the data or some information analogous to sign, like an orientation (North/South; East/West). When so indicating sign, the SSM is also considered to be indicating Normal Operation. In the case of two's- complement representation of signed binary numbers (BNR), Bit 2. Bit 2. 9 in this case. In the case of discrete data representation (e. SSM has a different, signless encoding. Bit- field, Binary Coded Decimal (BCD), and Binary Number Representation (BNR) are common ARINC 4. Data formats may also be mixed. Bits 9 and 1. 0 are Source/Destination Identifiers (SDI) and may indicate the intended receiver or, more frequently, indicate the transmitting subsystem. Bits 1 to 8 contain a label (label words), expressed in octal (MSB 1 bit numbering), identifying the data type. The image below exemplifies many of the concepts explained in the adjacent sections. In this image the Label (2. Data in blue- green and the Parity bit in navy blue. Each aircraft will contain a number of different systems, such as flight management computers, inertial reference systems, air data computers, radar altimeters, radios, and GPS sensors. For each type of equipment, a set of standard parameters is defined, which is common across all manufacturers and models. For example, any air data computer will provide the barometric altitude of the aircraft as label 2. This allows some degree of interchangeability of parts, as all air data computers behave, for the most part, in the same way. There are only a limited number of labels, though, and so label 2. GPS sensor, for example. Very commonly needed aircraft parameters, however, use the same label regardless of source. Also, as with any specification, each manufacturer has slight differences from the formal specification, such as by providing extra data above and beyond the specification, leaving out some data recommended by the specification, or other various changes. Protection from interference. ARINC 4. 29 employs several physical, electrical, and protocol techniques to minimize electromagnetic interference with on- board radios and other equipment, for example via other transmission cables. Its cabling is a shielded 7. V on Data A and - 1. V on Data B would constitute a valid driving signal), and the specification defines acceptable voltage rise and fall times. ARINC 4. 29's data encoding uses a complementary differential bipolar return- to- zero (BPRZ) transmission waveform, further reducing EMI emissions from the cable itself. Development tools. A logic analyzer with protocol decoding capabilities or protocol analyzers are useful tools which collect, analyze, decode, store signals so people can view the high- speed waveforms at their leisure. See also. This standard defines virtual point- to- point connections implementing the same concept as used in ARINC 4. In contrast to 4. TDMA logical links. While the 7. 08 transmission is a simplified version of MIL- STD- 1. Bill Travis, ed. Circuit transmits ARINC 4. EDN Magazine. Archived from the original on 2. Retrieved 2. 01. 1- 0. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2. Retrieved 2. 00. 9- 0. Annapolis, Maryland: Aeronautical Radio, Inc. Annapolis, Maryland: Aeronautical Radio, Inc. Avionics Interface Technologies. Communications Protocols in Aeronautics. Circuit Cellar (Online). CAN in Automation. Freiburg, Germany: AIM Gmb. H. Santa Barbara, CA: Condor Engineering, Inc. HOLT Integrated Circuits, Inc. Figure 1 : Block Diagram. Ballard Technology. HOLT Integrated Circuits, Inc. Annapolis, Maryland: Aeronautical Radio, Inc. Avionics News. Retrieved 1. February 2. 01. 4. Avionics News. Tech Time: Helpful Tips for the Avionics Technician: 6. Retrieved 1. 0 February 2. Data Communications Basics . Strangio(Developer of CAMI Research's Cable. Eye continuity & hipot Cable & Harness test systems)Copyright . Synchronous Transmission. The ASCII Character Set. Parity and Checksums. Data Compression. Data Encryption. Data Storage Technology. Data Transfer in Digital Circuits. Transmission over Short Distances (< 2 feet)Noise and Electrical Distortion. Transmission over Medium Distances (< 2. Transmission over Long Distances (< 4. Transmission over Very Long Distances (> 4. Back to home page: Cable. Eye Continuity & Hi. Pot Cable & Harness Test Systems. What is Data Communications? Next Topic . Over such small distances, digital data may be transmitted as direct, two- level electrical signals over simple copper conductors. Except for the fastest computers, circuit designers are not very concerned about the shape of the conductor or the analog characteristics of signal transmission. Frequently, however, data must be sent beyond the local circuitry that constitutes a computer. In many cases, the distances involved may be enormous. Unfortunately, as the distance between the source of a message and its destination increases, accurate transmission becomes increasingly difficult. This results from the electrical distortion of signals traveling through long conductors, and from noise added to the signal as it propagates through a transmission medium. Although some precautions must be taken for data exchange within a computer, the biggest problems occur when data is transferred to devices outside the computer's circuitry. In this case, distortion and noise can become so severe that information is lost. Data Communications concerns the transmission of digital messages to devices external to the message source. As a rule, the maximum permissible transmission rate of a message is directly proportional to signal power, and inversely proportional to channel noise. It is the aim of any communications system to provide the highest possible transmission rate at the lowest possible power and with the least possible noise. Communications Channels. Next Topic . It may be defined by a physical wire that connects communicating devices, or by a radio, laser, or other radiated energy source that has no obvious physical presence. Information sent through a communications channel has a source from which the information originates, and a destination to which the information is delivered. Although information originates from a single source, there may be more than one destination, depending upon how many receive stations are linked to the channel and how much energy the transmitted signal possesses. In a digital communications channel, the information is represented by individual data bits, which may be encapsulated into multibit message units. A byte, which consists of eight bits, is an example of a message unit that may be conveyed through a digital communications channel. A collection of bytes may itself be grouped into a frame or other higher- level message unit. Such multiple levels of encapsulation facilitate the handling of messages in a complex data communications network. Any communications channel has a direction associated with it: The message source is the transmitter, and the destination is the receiver. A channel whose direction of transmission is unchanging is referred to as a simplex channel. For example, a radio station is a simplex channel because it always transmits the signal to its listeners and never allows them to transmit back. A half- duplex channel is a single physical channel in which the direction may be reversed. Messages may flow in two directions, but never at the same time, in a half- duplex system. In a telephone call, one party speaks while the other listens. After a pause, the other party speaks and the first party listens. Speaking simultaneously results in garbled sound that cannot be understood. A full- duplex channel allows simultaneous message exchange in both directions. It really consists of two simplex channels, a forward channel and a reverse channel, linking the same points. The transmission rate of the reverse channel may be slower if it is used only for flow control of the forward channel. Serial Communications. Next Topic . Because it is neither practical nor economic to transfer all bits of a long message simultaneously, the message is broken into smaller parts and transmitted sequentially. Bit- serial transmission conveys a message one bit at a time through a channel. Each bit represents a part of the message. The individual bits are then reassembled at the destination to compose the message. In general, one channel will pass only one bit at a time. Thus, bit- serial transmission is necessary in data communications if only a single channel is available. Bit- serial transmission is normally just called serial transmission and is the chosen communications method in many computer peripherals. Byte- serial transmission conveys eight bits at a time through eight parallel channels. Although the raw transfer rate is eight times faster than in bit- serial transmission, eight channels are needed, and the cost may be as much as eight times higher to transmit the message. When distances are short, it may nonetheless be both feasible and economic to use parallel channels in return for high data rates. The popular Centronics printer interface is a case where byte- serial transmission is used. As another example, it is common practice to use a 1. On the other hand, when communicating with a timesharing system over a modem, only a single channel is available, and bit- serial transmission is required. This figure illustrates these ideas: The baud rate refers to the signalling rate at which data is sent through a channel and is measured in electrical transitions per second. In the EIA2. 32 serial interface standard, one signal transition, at most, occurs per bit, and the baud rate and bit rate are identical. In this case, a rate of 9. If two electrical transitions were required for each bit, as is the case in non- return- to- zero coding, then at a rate of 9. The channel efficiency is the number of bits of useful information passed through the channel per second. It does not include framing, formatting, and error detecting bits that may be added to the information bits before a message is transmitted, and will always be less than one. The data rate of a channel is often specified by its bit rate (often thought erroneously to be the same as baud rate). However, an equivalent measure channel capacity is bandwidth. In general, the maximum data rate a channel can support is directly proportional to the channel's bandwidth and inversely proportional to the channel's noise level. A communications protocol is an agreed- upon convention that defines the order and meaning of bits in a serial transmission. It may also specify a procedure for exchanging messages. A protocol will define how many data bits compose a message unit, the framing and formatting bits, any error- detecting bits that may be added, and other information that governs control of the communications hardware. Channel efficiency is determined by the protocol design rather than by digital hardware considerations. Note that there is a tradeoff between channel efficiency and reliability - protocols that provide greater immunity to noise by adding error- detecting and - correcting codes must necessarily become less efficient. Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Transmission. Next Topic . Instead, there is usually a burst of regularly spaced binary data bits followed by a pause, after which the data flow resumes. Packets of binary data are sent in this manner, possibly with variable- length pauses between packets, until the message has been fully transmitted. In order for the receiving end to know the proper moment to read individual binary bits from the channel, it must know exactly when a packet begins and how much time elapses between bits. |
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